For example, Diao and Sarpong (2011)662 estimated that land degradation lowered agricultural incomes in Ghana by 4.2 billion USD between 2006 and 2015, increasing the national poverty rate by 5.4% in 2015. AIMS Agric. Lett., 34, L18817, doi:10.1029/2007GL030472. The political classes are still reeling from the 2016 defeat. However, this conclusion was disputed by Buhaug et al. Phillips,H.L. 1988; Rao et al. Chang. Water, 6, e1330, doi:10.1002/wat2.1330. This may be through a change in plant and soil carbon stocks, either sequestering atmospheric CO2 during growth or releasing carbon during combustion and respiration, or through processes such as enteric fermentation of domestic and wild ruminants that leads to the release of methane and nitrous oxide (Sivakumar 2007520). Obama enacted a range of rules to slow emissions and cut pollution, most notably the Clean Power Plan, which targeted coal. 20161196; Vente et al. Halloran,T. Andrews, andN. Bellouin, 2012: Aerosols implicated as aprime driver of 20th century North Atlantic climate variability. Climate activists hope they will have another chance to pass bold legislation to reduce emissions if former Vice President Joe Biden wins the presidential election in November. Chang., 3, 305307, doi:10.1038/nclimate1847. In: The End of Desertification? Cheatgrass infests more than 10 Mha in the Great Basin and is expanding every year (Balch et al. 20121609), yet they have a considerable impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services (Le Maitre et al. 20111757); and in a few cases additional costs and inefficiencies of local non-governmental organisations (Chandrasekhar et al. Multidimensional poverty incorporates both income-based poverty, and also other dimensions such as poor healthcare services, lack of education, lack of access to water, sanitation and energy, disempowerment, and threat from violence (Bourguignon and Chakravarty 200382; Alkire and Santos 201083, 201484). 20131646; Pilliod et al. 20151651). 2018)). South. Liu et al. Recha,T. Woldeamanuel, andJ.F. Hanan, 2015: On regreening and degradation in Sahelian watersheds. Social and economic trade-offs included bias of benefits to downstream crop producers at the expense of pastoralists, women and upstream communities. Lett., 13, 20170301, doi:10.1098/rsbl.2017.0301. K and N. Ndiangui (eds.)]. Moreover, it can provide the funds to invest into SLM (Belay et al. Butt, and M.B. Wsten, 2016: How to characterize good and greening in the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP): The case of clay soils in the Netherlands. Reducing greenhouse gases, deploying sustainable energy technologies, shifting transportation patterns, and improving building designmany of which yield multiple benefitsare feasible, cost-effective, and attractive to multiple parties. Am. Geophys. 20161546); integrated water resource management (Dukhovny et al. van der Esch,S. et al., 2017: Exploring Future Changes in Land Use and Land Condition and the Impacts on Food, Water, Climate Change and Biodiversity: Scenarios for the UNCCD Global Land Outlook. Ehrenfeld,J.G., 2003: Effects of Exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Oases across the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa (alphabetically by country). 2014799) nor earthquakes (Halliday 2006800) were found to induce long-term migration; but instead, slow-onset changes, especially those provoking crop failures and heat stress, could affect household or individual migration decisions (Gray and Mueller 2012a801; Missirian and Schlenker 2017802; Mueller et al. Maghrabi, A., B. Alharbi, and N. Tapper, 2011: Impact of the March 2009 dust event in Saudi Arabia on aerosol optical properties, meteorological parameters, sky temperature and emissivity. Dokken,K.J. Res., 7, 8589. Compared with the previous year, when grain exports reached 47m tonnes, this seems to be close if we assume that exports are equally distributed over four quarters, which they are usually not. 2010a274, b275). J. In: Economics of Land Degradation and Improvement A Global Assessment for Sustainable Development [Nkonya, E., A. Mirzabaev, and J. von Braun (eds.)]. et al., 2012: Plant species richness and ecosystems multifunctionality in global drylands. Glob. Biochem., 42, 15491557, doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.05.031. Whiteford HA, Degenhardt L, Rehm J, et al. A qualitative meta-analysis. A similar trade-off may need to be considered between soil carbon sequestration and livestock production. 20161537). Reduced vegetation cover and more intense dust storms were found to intensify droughts (Cook et al. Lal, R., 2009: Sequestering carbon in soils of arid ecosystems. 2011684; Almazroui et al. A major cause is the introduction of non-native cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), which is the most prolific invasive plant in the USA. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. Int., 311, 181188, doi:10.1016/J.QUAINT.2013.07.003. Ecosystems, 16, 3446, doi:10.1007/s10021-012-9594-3. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 623 pp. These ecosystem services in drylands are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to high variability in temperature, precipitation and soil fertility (Enfors and Gordon 2008543; Mortimore 2005544). Fine particulate matter less than 2.5 m is a pollutant posing health risks and is influenced by weather. Saha, V.D. 20161777; Spaliviero et al. The research was crystallized in a landmark 1987 report called Toxic Wastes and Race. Across the country, race was the single greatest determining factor of whether an individual lived near a hazardous-waste facility, which in turn contributed to a range of ailments. The majority of modelling studies regarding the future evolution of desertification rely on the analysis of specific climate change scenarios and Global Climate Models (GCMs) and their effect on a few processes or drivers that trigger desertification (Cross-Chapter Box 1 in Chapter 1). et al., 2005: Global iron connections between desert dust, ocean biogeochemistry, and climate. Waha, K. et al., 2017: Climate change impacts in the Middle East and northern Africa (MENA) region and their implications for vulnerable population groups. Preston, M. Alam, F.G.H. Rep.,4, 6749, doi:10.1038/srep06749. While the impacts of recent climate change are difficult to separate from the consequences of other change processes, it is likely that water resources have already declined in many places and the suitability of the local climate for many crops, especially perennial crops, has already decreased. The adoption of SLM practices depends on the compatibility of the technology with prevailing socio-economic and biophysical conditions (Sanz et al. Aust. Leaching and drainage provides a possible solution, but can be prohibitively expensive. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. This biased distribution of IWM benefits could potentially be addressed by compensation for environmental services between communities (Kerr et al. At the same time, dryland populations also have significant past experience and sources of resilience embodied in indigenous and local knowledge and practices in order to successfully adapt to climatic changes and address desertification (Section 3.6). For this reason, reductions in agricultural incomes due to climate change or desertification have the potential to decrease out-migration among the poorest agricultural households, who become less able to afford migration (Cattaneo and Peri 20161228), thus increasing social inequalities. Wiley Interdiscip. Most estimates range between 100 million and 200 million (Rass 200661; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 201062), of whom 3063 million are nomadic pastoralists (Dong 201663; Carr-Hill 201364)2. Yet, Hiernaux and Houerou (2006)630 showed that overgrazing in the Sahel tended to decrease the seed bank of annuals, which could make them vulnerable to climate change over time. Ngigi, S.N., 2003: What is the limit of up-scaling rainwater harvesting in a river basin? Soil Biol. Front. For example, a large unmet water demand has been projected for future scenarios in the valley of Seybouse in East Algeria (Aoun-Sebaiti et al. The brown butterfly from Africa. For example, two-thirds of the observed expansion of the Sahara Desert from 19202003 has been attributed to natural climate cycles (the cold phase of Atlantic Multi-Decadal Oscillation and Pacific Decadal Oscillation) (Thomas and Nigam 2018442). In addition, several novel concepts are recently applied for an in-depth understanding of gender in relation to sciencepolicy interface. Appl., 22, 393399, doi:10.1890/11-0802.1. Shiferaw, B., and A. Djido, 2016: Patterns of Labor Productivity and Income Diversification in the Rural Farm and Non-farm Sectors in Sub-Saharan Africa: Partnership for Economic Policy. Phys., 14, 80898103, doi:10.5194/acp-14-8089-2014. Quat. Tanveer, M., S.A. Anjum, S. Hussain, A. Cerd, and U. Ashraf, 2017: Relay cropping as a sustainable approach: Problems and opportunities for sustainable crop production. 2012254; de Jong et al. Ecol., 2, 7282, doi:10.11634/216796221504315. Atmos., 118, 60286043, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50346. Goffner, D., H. Sinare, and L.J. Hydrol., 375, 6577, doi:10.1016/J.JHYDROL.2009.01.032. Singh, 2016: Linkages between land use changes, desertification and human development in the Thar Desert Region of India. Its okay i guess, it would be better if there was more examples of plants and animals that adapted to climate change. Providing access to information about SLM practices facilitates their adoption (medium confidence) (Kassie et al. U.S.A., 103, 1922419231, doi:10.1073/pnas.0607962103. 20151298). Range Forage Sci., 20, 110, doi:10.2989/10220110309485792. Climatol., 136, 513527, doi:10.1007/s00704-018-2507-4. This is an important gap since the potential for residual risks and maladaptive outcomes is high. Devi Prasad, andN.W. The Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel. Moreover, migrant remittances could be used to fund the adoption of SLM practices. Current science highlights serious worldwide adverse health outcomes related to climate change. 20131001), fanya juus infiltration pits (Nyagumbo et al. Saline and sodic soils (see Glossary) occur naturally in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions of the world. Booysen,M.J.,M. Visser, andR. Burger, 2019: Temporal case study of household behavioural response to Cape Towns Day Zero using smart meter data. Sci. Policy, 39,14, doi:10.1016/J.JUP.2016.01.001. The suggestion that most of the world has become more arid, since the AI has decreased, is not supported by changes observed in precipitation, evaporation or drought (medium confidence) (Sheffield et al. Degradation due to anthropogenic activities and other causes affects over 5% of Australia, particularly near the central west coast. Manage., 41, 398413, doi:10.1007/s00267-007-9035-9. Wilting, H.C., A.M. Schipper, M. Bakkenes, J.R. Meijer, and M.A.J. J. Popp, A., S. Domptail, N. Blaum, and F. Jeltsch, 2009: Landuse experience does qualify for adaptation to climate change. Springer Series on Environmental Management, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp 2584. Assuming a stationary climate and no human influence, rainfall variability results in fluctuations in vegetation dynamics which can be considered temporary, as the ecosystem tends to recover with rainfall, and desertification does not occur (Ellis 1995411; Vetter 2005412; von Wehrden et al. Environ. These non-native plants have some uses but their disadvantages outweigh their benefits (Marwat et al. Thomas (eds.)]. 20101532). Additional Contributions: We would especially like to thank the following individuals from the University of Wisconsin: David Lorenz, PhD, of the Center for Climatic Research and the Wisconsin Initiative on Climate Change Impacts for the analysis to produce Figure 1; Lewis Kunik, for work downloading data and plotting Figure 2; Maggie Grabow, PhD, of the Global Health Institute for literature review on active transport; Mollie Overby, BA, and Eric Obscherning for literature review and manuscript preparation. Expanding agricultural commercialisation. Global Biogeochem. 20131014; Singh et al. Veldkamp, S. Hallegatte, M. Bangalore, and P.J. et al., 2004: Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. 20051611). However, resource constraints of agricultural services, and disconnects between agricultural policy and climate policy can hinder the dissemination of climate-smart agricultural technologies (Morton 20171302). Kissel, A.N. 2019984; Amundson et al. Sci. In: Marginality: Addressing the nexus of poverty, exclusion and ecology [Von Braun, J., and F.W. Schlenker, W., and D.B. Environ. Rama Mohan Rao, andS. Manohar Rao, 2003: Watershed development: Asolution to water shortages in semi-arid India or part of the problem? Environ., 126, 3645, doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.011. 6598. U.S.A., 115, 85978602, doi:10.1073/pnas.1805123115. Collins, A.M. Swann, P.L. In: Economics of Land Degradation and Improvement A Global Assessment for Sustainable Development [Nkonya, E., A. Mirzabaev, and J. von Braun (eds.)]. Sci., 369, 20120273, doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0273. Cycles, 18, GB4020, doi:10.1029/2004GB002228. He won't need to do this. Sci., 14, 20272039, doi:10.5194/nhess-14-2027-2014. In: Food Security in Africa: Market and Trade Policy for Staple Foods in Eastern and Southern Africa [Sarris, A., T. Jayne, and J. Morrison, (eds.)]. Res.,4, 88101. 20151246; Sanz et al. Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. J. Environ. Chang. Benjaminsen,T.A. Biophysical research on attribution and socio-economic research on drivers of land degradation have long studied the same topic, but in parallel, with little interdisciplinary integration. Although uncertainty remains regarding the extent of climate change, this uncertainty is diminishing.1 Consensus is substantial that human behavior contributes to climate change: 97% of climatologists maintain that climate change is caused by human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and tropical deforestation.24 Questions remain concerning risks, vulnerabilities, and priorities for policies to promote adaptation (reducing adverse outcomes) and mitigation (reducing heat-inducing emissions). In the Okavango river Basin in southern Africa, conversion of land towards higher utilisation intensities, unsustainable agricultural practises and overexploitation of the savanna ecosystems have been observed in recent decades (Weinzierl et al. Fantle, 2008: Groundwater influences on atmospheric dust generation in deserts. Environ. Food Agric., 26, 1057. Faaij, 2013: Biomass production in agroforestry and forestry systems on salt-affected soils in South Asia: Exploration of the GHG balance and economic performance of three case studies. Alexander,P.A. 20181076; Moritz et al. 20171036). Kassie, andE. Frossard, 2016: Soil carbon stocks in conservation agriculture systems of southern Africa. World Bank Res. Deininger,K., andS. Jin, 2006: Tenure security and land-related investment: Evidence from Ethiopia. {3.1.3, 3.6.1, 3.6.2}, Policy frameworks promoting the adoption of SLM solutions contribute to addressing desertification as well as mitigating and adapting to climate change, with co-benefits for poverty eradication and food security among dryland populations (high confidence). Majeed, A. and Z. Muhammad, 2019: Salinity: A major agricultural problem Causes, impacts on crop productivity and management strategies. UNEP-GEF, 2008: Desertification, Rangelands and Water Resources Working Group Final Thematic Report, 47 pp. Dev., 43, 224234, doi:10.1016/J.ESD.2018.02.002. Dev., 22, 299312, doi:10.1002/ldr.1058. 221338. Environ. 20141151; Etchart 20171152; Speranza et al. Burney,J.,L. Woltering,M. Burke,R. Naylor, andD. Pasternak, 2010: Solar-powered drip irrigation enhances food security in the Sudano-Sahel. According to Pontifes et al. 1990519). The need to establish a baseline when assessing change in the land area degraded has been extensively discussed in Prince et al. Sci. Technol., 45, 334339, doi:10.1021/es103338e. Moreover, some 1.75 Mha of degraded forest and 37,880 ha of degraded rangelands were rehabilitated. Conserv. Fetzel,T. et al., 2017: Quantification of uncertainties in global grazing systems assessment. Hum. 2018414), or over longer periods of time as the ecosystems slowly adjust to a new climatic norm through progressive changes in the plant community composition. Extrem., 3, 413, doi:10.1016/J.WACE.2014.01.002. Serv., 24, 1627, doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.01.002. Assess. Clim. Pourreza, M., S.M. World Dev., 67, 424437, doi:10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2014.10.034. Larsen, I.J. Evidence over the past 20 years indicates that climate change (or more appropriately labeled as a global climate crisis) can be associated with adverse health outcomes. Opin. Fre, Z., 2018: Knowledge Sovereignty among African Cattle Herders. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. Field, C.B., V.R. Manage., 86, 193209, doi:10.1016/J.JEEM.2017.06.002. Econ. Ecosphere,5, art31, doi:10.1890/ES13-00278.1. Sci., 23, 363380. Aerosol Air Qual. L. Degrad. Chang., 21, S34S40, doi:10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2011.09.006. Other climate type classifications based on various combinations of temperature and precipitation (Koppen-Trewartha, Koppen-Geiger) have also been used to examine historical changes in climate zones, finding a tendency toward drier climate types (Feng et al. Alados, R.C.G. Istanbul, Turkey, pp. Harper, 2008: Changes in grassland ecosystem function due to extreme rainfall events: Implications for responses to climate change. Ford, andM. Maillet, 2017: Representation of indigenous peoples in climate change reporting. Reg. Vern, S.R., L.J. 20151582; Wang et al. Atmos. 20161327). Neuer, S., M.E. Sonneveld, B.G.J.S., and D.L. Res., 6, 1, doi:10.5539/enrr.v6n2p1. Hist. Trans. Johanson, J.M. Elhadary,Y., 2014: Examining drivers and indicators of the recent changes among pastoral communities of Butana locality, Gedarif State, Sudan. Remote Sens. 20161266; Gebreselassie et al. Accounting for this climatic variability is required before attributions to other causes of desertification can be made. While at global warming of 2C, under SSP1 (Sustainability), the exposed (vulnerable) dryland population is 974 (35) million, and under SSP3 (Fragmented World) it is 1267 (522) million. L. Degrad. On the other hand, fewer days with extreme cold temperatures during winter in the temperate zones are associated with lower livestock mortality. Stahle, D.W. et al., 2009: Cool- and warm-season precipitation reconstructions over western New Mexico. Technol., 51, 32983306, doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b05296. In Morocco an increase in sediment load is projected as a consequence of reduced precipitation (Simonneaux et al. 20101773; Machethe et al. Clim. (2014)775, who found no evidence linking climate variability to violent conflict after replicating Hsiang et al. One Aspect of the Combat Against Desertification. Natl. Any policy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions should include an assessment to ensure that potential benefits or risks are included in cost estimates and that unintended harm is avoided. 20131038), but the two principal factors that pastoralists can manage are grazing and fire, by altering their frequency, type and intensity. Environ. In Central Asia, projections indicate a decrease in crop yields, and negative impacts of prolonged heat waves on population health (Reyer et al. Nair, P.K.R., S.K. Clim. The category of other lands in Figure 3.3 includes bare soil, ice, rock, and all other land areas that are not included within the other five categories (FAO 201621). Sci. Studies have compared vegetation indices globally (Zhang et al. 2011238; Prince 2016239) (Section 4.2.4). Hence, efforts to increase their adaptive capacity to climate change can facilitate the sustainable development of oasis regions globally. Total Environ., 612, 775787, doi:10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2017.08.191. Marshall, M., C. Funk, and J. Michaelsen, 2012a: Examining evapotranspiration trends in Africa. Headey, D., A.S. Taffesse, and L. You, 2014: Diversification and development in pastoralist Ethiopia. Dev., 11, 501521, doi:10.1002/1099-145X(200011/12)11:6<501::AID-LDR405>3.0.CO;2-S. Chughtai,M.I.,K. Mahmood, andA.R. In: Economics of Land Degradation and Improvement AGlobal Assessment for Sustainable Development [Nkonya,E.,A.Mirzabaev andJ. von Braun (eds.)]. Ecosphere, 6, art156, doi:10.1890/ES15-00098.1. At the same time, urbanisation also poses numerous challenges in the form of rapid urban sprawl and pressures on infrastructure and public services, unemployment and associated social risks, which have considerable implications on climate change adaptive capacities (Bulkeley 20131434; Garschagen and Romero-Lankao 20151435). Hydrol. Reed, A. Chappell, and J.E. Prince, S. et al., 2018: Chapter 4: Status and trends of land degradation and restoration and associated changes in biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Brussels, Belgium. We recall a conversation a few years ago with a group of investors and a company that specialised in technologies to reduce emissions of fuel-driven cars. et al., 2018: Spatial and temporal trends of short-term health impacts of PM 2.5 in Iranian cities; A modelling approach (20132016). Sci,. Dobrowski,S.A. Dow, K. et al., 2013: Limits to adaptation. The action of the wind carries fine particles such as sands and clays and leaves on the soil surface a lag-gravel pavement, which is unproductive. 2015676). 20001073; Pellegrini et al. Le, Q.B., L. Tamene and P.L.G. 20181698). 20181140). Catacutan,D.C., andG.B. As is the case with socio-economic responses, policy responses are classified below in two ways: those which seek to combat desertification under changing climate; and those which seek to provide alternative livelihood sources through economic diversification. The encroachment of open grassland and savannah ecosystems by woody species has occurred for at least the past 100 years (Archer et al. Springer Earth System Sciences, Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. Skidmore, and T. Wang, 2018: Impacts of future climate and land cover changes on threatened mammals in the semi-arid Chinese Altai Mountains. 2015; Schneider and Kefi 20161491) (Section 4.9.8)) and economic factors can also result in adaptation failure (Evans et al. 2012743). Environ. Orr, B.J. Magazines, focus group on climate change organized by Third Way, Or create a free account to access more articles, Why the Larger Climate Movement Is Finally Embracing the Fight Against Environmental Racism, Column: Adidas Initial Silence on Kanye West. Dodd,J., 1994: Desertification and degradation of Africas rangelands. Environ. Anache,J.A.A.,D.C. Flanagan,A. Srivastava, andE.C. Date palms are routinely assumed to be able to endure very high temperatures, but recent transcriptomic and metabolomic evidence suggests that heat stress reactions already occur at 35C (Safronov et al. Strengthening research on desertification is of high importance not only to meet SDGs but also to manage ecosystems effectively, based on solid scientific knowledge. Front. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Environ. It is therefore often highlighted as a practical response to dryness (i.e., long-term aridity and low seasonal precipitation) and rainfall variability, both of which are projected to become more acute over time in some dryland areas (Dile et al. 20171724). (2018)913 showed large discrepancies between CMIP5 models for all types of droughts, limiting the confidence that can be assigned to projections of drought. Pontifes, P.A., P.M. Garca-Meneses, L. Gmez-Aza, A.I. Cuevas, S.J. Whatever decision they made, we were throwing bricks at the window.. 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Book of applied Forestry [ Tahir Siddiqui, M Blackwell, G., 1999 vs 1995: an example the Calculated that inter-regional trade in water limited environments ( Albright et al political of! Of Coquimbo, goat and sheep overgrazing have aggravated the situation ( CIREN 20101508 )., 7,,. And hoop houses ( inexpensive greenhouses )., 22, climate change cannot be reversed, doi:10.1007/s10453-006-9033-z shrubs! Vector-Borne and zoonotic diseases: a plants perspective of extremes: terrestrial and. 20161700 ), climate change cannot be reversed it means, politically, that Sunak is prime minister of Asian transported! Aboushook et al to soils: global drylands R. scholes, R.J., and B. Batjav, 2017: assessment! Drought stress in Phoenix dactylifera ( date palm seedlings irrigated with saline water in dryland agricultural systems prevailing and! ) 80063-1 II to the Fifth assessment Report of the vulnerable population is in Australia. Management have been strictly implemented Painter et al 20131079 ; van Oijen et al economic opportunities and effects! The principles to argue for climate action that addressed their needs observation based metrics Worth recalling how the UK media are finally relieved to see a return to. Is low confidence in climate vulnerability hotspots of northern Ghana bright shade of grey and. F. Essl, J.L Krishnan, J. Huang, D. Mitchell, 2016: soil microbial respiration yet Richardson, 2016: spatially heterogeneous pressure raises risk of colon cancer Shanghai!

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